Formal learning - educational settings

 

    Formal learning can be defined as an education that is intentionally designed, it usually takes place in a specific place, such as a school or college, led by ‘experts' and follows a structured plan; such as a curriculum, and is assessed and certified (Eaton, 2010). When most people think of learning, this would no doubt be what would come to mind. However, as the philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti said, “the whole of life, from the moment you are born to the moment you die, is a process of learning” (Krishnamurti, 2022). For most, formal learning is a small part of the overall life-long learning journey.  
    
    It is often presumed that formal education is a western construct that emerged as a result of industrialisation in the nineteenth century. Whilst formal education prior to industrial revolution was scarce (Carl, 2009), there is ethnographic evidence that shows it can be dated as far back as 5000 years to hunter-gatherer societies (Eskelson, 2020). Learning at this time took place in formal settings, had a set program of skills and knowledge was taught and evaluated by experienced elders. Similarly, formal education occurred in traditional Māori societies where learning often took place in the whāre wanaanga, where a small number of students, those who were often descended from chiefs, were taught and assessed (Te Ara, 2022). What happened as a result of the Industrial revolution, in the West at least, was that formal education became more universally accessible and mandated; a broader curriculum was established as well as formal teacher training (Fenn, 2019). In all these examples, the nature and context of learning was chosen by others, in the interest of the community or wider society.             

Traditional formal educational environments such as schools were largely designed around the pedagogical approaches of the time. The dominant learning theories for much of the early to mid-twentieth century centred around behaviourism, which purported that learning occurred in response to an environmental stimulus (Fenn, 2019). Learning was only thought to take place if it had been observed. This is still evident in formal education, with students responding to the stimulus (curriculum) and their response observed, whether through formative or summative assessments. Schooling was also designed to be teacher-centric; it was the teacher who delivered the knowledge and the students who received it, classrooms were designed around this premise with the teacher at the front presenting information and the students facing the teacher.    

Traditional ‘Teacher-centred’ classroom. Image: Creative Commons

In the mid-twentieth century, behaviourist learning theories were replaced by cognitivism, which shifted from an empiricist viewpoint of what can be observed, to a more rationalist view of how and why learning occurs (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). When looking at various learning settings it is easy to see how the various learning theories and pedagogical approaches have shaped them. A learning setting includes both social and pedagogical contexts, as well as the physical space (Osborne, 2016). In New Zealand, 70% of schools that are currently in use today were built during the 1950s and 1960s (New Zealand, 2011), meaning that many of the learning environments were developed and designed for a different time, with different social and pedagogical factors at play.       

  

    Recent changes have occurred mostly as a result of globalisation, advances in neuroscience and technological advancements (Osborne, 2016., OECD, 2017). In order to accommodate these changes and in recognition of the skills and knowledge needed for the twenty-first century; collaboration, creativity, critical thinking and problem solving (Geisinger, 2016). Education has therefore moved away from simply being about the transition of knowledge, as Wagner (2008) states knowledge is ubiquitous, it is freely available “like air or water,” often just one Google search away.   

 New schools are now being planned in order to accommodate the move away from teacher-centred pedagogies to student-centred. A Modern Learning Environment (MLE), (also known as an Innovative Learning Environment) is designed to provide a space where learner-centred pedagogies and 21st century skills can be front and centre of learning. The way that older school buildings are designed does not lend itself to collaboration, play-based learning and fostering other 21st century skills. Osborne (2016), states that research shows that when a classroom is designed with seating in rows and the whiteboard at the front, traditional teacher-centred approaches ensue.   

Modern Learning Environment. Image courtesy of Demco Interiors: Creative Commons.

The ethos of Modern Learning Environment is to a move schooling away from structured, siloed curriculum and traditional pedagogies, towards a student-centred, inclusive and culturally diverse curriculum that incorporates Project-Based Learning, Design Thinking and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles. However, whilst there is a shift in New Zealand towards newer buildings and 21st century approaches, the curriculum content has remained relatively unchanged, with the exception of the inclusion of Digital Technology/Hangarau Matihiko (2019) and Aotearoa New Zealand’s histories.The way that subjects are presented and assessed is siloed, rather than integrated. The whole purpose of education is still to gain official qualifications, which have been formally taught and accessed. Nash (2002), states that “curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation are structured by specific historical form.” 

Mainstream schooling in New Zealand still largely works from a traditional English centric model of education, where the curriculum centres around western knowledge and that knowledge is evaluated using formal assessment. The impact of British colonialism on the New Zealand education sector does not end there, Barnes et al. (2013), attributes the ongoing impact of colonialism with a disconnect between whānau and English medium schools. This disconnect is worrying as research has shown that when whānau and schools work well together, whānau and student well-being is enhanced (Barnes, 2013).  

The New Zealand Curriculum (2007) recognises building good relationships with parents, caregivers, whānau and the wider community as “effective pedagogy,” acknowledging that these relationships can provide important insights into the child, which in turn advances their learning. This connection with parents, whānau and communities is particularly important for children whose “social class, culture, and/or ethnicity and cultural heritages differ from those predominant in the school” (ERO, 2016). Not only do these connections advance learning, but they can provide insights which can improve the children's overall life chances (Rona et al., 2018).  

Bull (2011) states that the move towards 21st century learning encourages more discourse around the alignment of home and school environments, with the move towards self-directed learning and learning through digital technologies. This alignment was highlighted by the blurring of the two environments and the roles of teachers and whānau during the Covid-19 lockdowns, where learning moved from school to home, and whānau often became de facto teachers.  

                                    Introduction to 21st Century Learning.

The Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent world-wide lockdowns further blurred the lines between formal and informal learning, with many children learning online from home and teachers building lessons from what children were doing as part of their everyday learning. Research conducted by Bourke et al. (2021) into the learning that took place in New Zealand during the Covid-19 lockdowns noted that learners in the study developed their ability to self-direct and self-regulated learning during this time. The wero now for teachers is to recognise and build on what was learnt during this time now they are back at school.  

References:

Bourke, R., O’Neill, J. & Loveridge, J. (2018a). Children’s conceptions of informal and everyday learning. Oxford Review of Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2018.1450238 

Bourke, R., O’Neill, J. & Loveridge, J. (2018b). What starts to happen to assessment when teachers learn about their children’s informal learning? The Australian Educational Researcher. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323242417_What_starts_to_happen_to_assessment_when_teachers_learn_about_their_children's_informal_learning 

Bourke, R., O’Neill, J., McDowall, S., Dacre, M., Mincher, N., Narayanan, V., Overbye, S., & Tuifagalele, R. (2021). Children’s informal learning at home during Covid-19 lockdown. New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Wellington. https://www.nzcer.org.nz/research/publications/learning-during-lockdown 

Bull, A. (2011) From community engagement in education to public engagement with education. New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Wellington. https://www.nzcer.org.nz/system/files/From%20community%20engagement%20in%20education%20to%20public%20engagement6.pdf  

Carl, J. (2009). Industrialization and Public Education: Social Cohesion and Social Stratification. In: Cowen, R., Kazamias, A.M. (eds) International Handbook of Comparative Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education, vol 22.https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6403-6_32#citeas 

Dumont, H., Istance, D., & Benavides, F. (2010). How can the learning sciences inform the design of 21st century learning environments? OECD. https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/49825988.pdf  

Eaton, S. E. (2010). Formal, non-formal and informal learning: The case of literacy, essential skills and language learning in Canada. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED508254  

ERO. (2016). Evaluation indicators for school reviews: A commentary on engaging parents, whānau and communities. https://ero.govt.nz/how-ero-reviews/schoolskura-english-medium/school-evaluation-indicators/evaluation-indicators-for-school-reviews-a-commentary-on-engaging-parents 

Ertmer, P, A., & Newby, T, J. (2013) Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Retrieved from: https://northweststate.edu/wp-content/uploads/files/21143_ftp.pdf   

Eskelson, T.C. (2020). How and why formal education originated in the emergence of civilisation. Journal of Education and Learning. 9 (2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339071191_How_and_Why_Formal_Education_Originated_in_the_Emergence_of_Civilization 

Fenn, J. (2019). Ways education was affected by the Industrial Revolution. The Medium. https://medium.com/@johnbfenn/ways-education-was-affected-by-the-industrial-revolution-78644198dec3 

Geisinger, K. F. (2016) 21st Century Skills: What Are They and How Do We Assess Them?, Applied Measurement in Education, 29 (4). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08957347.2016.1209207?scroll=top&needAccess=true 

Greenhow, C., & Lewin,C. (2016) Social media and education: reconceptualizing the boundaries of formal and informal learning. Learning, Media and Technology. 41(1). https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/617955/3/Recrafting%20formal%20education%20final%20draft%20post-refereeing.pdf 

Harrop, D. & Turpin, B. (2013). A Study Exploring Learners’ Informal Learning Space Behaviours, Attitudes, and Preferences. New Review of Academic Librarianship. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2013.740961 

Lange, P.G. (2018). Informal Learning on YouTube. The International Encyclopaedia of Media Literacy. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781118978238.ieml0090 

Maton, K. (2008). Cumulative and segmented learning: exploring the role of curriculum structures in knowledge building. British Journal of Sociology of Education.  https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.massey.ac.nz/doi/pdf/10.1080/01425690802514342

New Zealand Curriculum. (2007). Ministry of Education. https://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/The-New-Zealand-Curriculum 

New Zealand Ministry of Education. (2011). The New Zealand School Property Strategy 2011-2022. https://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE7417232 

OECD. (2013). Innovative Learning Environments, Educational Research and Innovation. OECD Publishing. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/innovative-learning-environments_9789264203488-en#page5 

OECD. (2017). OECD Economic Survey New Zealand 2017. https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-new-zealand-2017_eco_surveys-nzl-2017-en#page4 

Osborne, M. (2016). Innovative Learning Environments. Core Education. http://blog.core-ed.org/files/2017/01/Innovative-Learning-Environments-FINAL-web.pdf 

Pearson, H. (2017). Lessons from the longest study on human development. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/helen_pearson_lessons_from_the_longest_study_on_human_development?language=en 

Rona, S., Forster, M., O’Neill, J. (2018). Māori children everyday learning over the summer holidays. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322258453_Maori_children's_everyday_learning_over_the_summer_holidays 

Stahl, G., & Dale, P. (2013). Success on the decks: Working-class boys, education and turning the tables on the perception of failure. Gender and Education, 25 (3), 357-372. https://eds.s.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=d62535ee-03e5-4185-b35b-96a115619bda%40redis 

Te Ara. (2022). Education in traditional Māori society. https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori-education-matauranga/page-1 

UNESCO. (2018). Training tools for curriculum development: a resource pack. IBE-UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000250420_eng 

Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap. Basic Books. 20-21.